A literary text is created by drawing upon literary devices, rhetoric, typologies of writing, concepts of composition and a variety of styles. These are broadly categorised under the broad head of literary terms. Here is a comprehensive collection of these terms and they are explained with examples to create a context for the understanding of texts.

A

Aafaaqiyat (Universality)

Aafaaqiyat refers to universality. It is a term used in the domains of literature, philosophy and the sciences in particular. It implies that universal facts exist but they are discovered in stages only. These facts concern larger arenas of human experience and they hold meaning universally. Poets and writers in all literatures and all ages have explored and addressed internal and external realities concerning life and times. These realities reflect the dreams, fantaies and aspirations of people irrespective of time ad place.  

It is pertinent to note here that in the postmodernist and postcolonial era much emphasis has been laid on particularities than on generalities which challenge the idea of universality. This is because universality promotes the hegemony of the powerful and underlines the subjugation of the powerless. However, universal truths have had their appeal in all times and all places.

References: Nahi ‘ishq jis wo badaa kood hai/Kadhein us se mil biseeyaa jaaye naa (Quli Qutub Shah), Zindagi hai ya koyi toofan hai/Hum to is jeeney ke haathon mar chaley (Khwaja Meer Dard), Aafaaq ki manzil se gaya kaun salaamat/Saamaan luta raah mein yaan har safari ka (Meer Taqi Meer), Kamar baandhey huey chalney ko yaan sab yaar baithhey hain/Bahut aagey gaye baaqi jo hain taiyyar baitthey hain(InshaAllah Khan Insha), Gham-e hasti ka Asad kis se ho juz marg-e ilaaj/Shama har rung mein jalti hai sahar honey tak (Asadullah Khan Ghalib), Sitaaron sey aagey jahaan aur bhee hain/Abhi ‘ishq ke imtihaan aur bhee hain (Mohammad Iqbal), Kaargaah-e duniyaa mein neesti bhi hasti hai/Ik taraf ujadti hai ek samt basti hai (Yaas Yagana Changezi), Zindagi jaisi tawwaqo thhee nahin, kuchch kam hai/Har ghadi hota hai ehsaas kaheen kuchch kam hai (Shahrayar).

Aahung (Rhythm/Harmony)

Aahung relates with the internal rhythm of a poem.  It concerns the overall harmony of the poetical piece which include the crescendo and descendo of expression, as well as the pace, cadence and tempo of the text. It comes close to a composition in music where the internal rhythm imparts a certain character to a musical composition which is based on certain raaga and raagini. In literary terms, aahung is a typical characteristic of poetry rather than of prose.

In order to create a condition of aahung, poets make use of their auditory imagination with a view to weigh and balance one counter of expression against another with respect to tone, tenor and appeal. Aahung, thus, creates echoes and reverberations in the text by bringing such words and phrases together that create a sense of rhythm and contribute towards evolving an internal harmony in the text. In poetry, meter plays a major role in producing aahung as can be seen frequently in the nazm and ghazal tradition.

Reference:  Betaab kiya shauq ne mujh dil koon badan mein/Gul pairhanaan ka//Jiun ghuncha ka bund mohabbat ke chaman mein/Rangeen dehanaan ka//Mujh dil ki naman ‘ishq soon gardish mein hamesha/Tanha nahin khursheed//Mushtaaq ho phirta hai sadaa maah gagan mein/Seemeen badanaan ka(Vali Deccani, “Mustazaad”), Yar-o mehtaab-o gul-o shama, baham chaaron ek/Main, kataan, bulbul-o parwaana, ye hum chaaron ek/ /Hai mujhe abr-o hawaa, sheesha-o jum ab ke hue/Girya-o naala, dil-o deeda-i-num, chaaron ek(Mirza Mohammad Rafi Sauda, “Dar Manqabat-e Hazrat Ali”), Duniya mein paadshah hai, so hai wo bhi aadmi/Aur muflis-o gadaa hai, so hai wo bhi aadmi/Zardaar-e be-nawaa hai, so hai wo bhi aadmi/Nemat jo kha raha hai, so hai wo bhi aadmi/Tukde jo maangtaa hai, so hai wo bhi aadmi(Nazir Akbarabadi, “Aadmi Naama”), Agar tum kaho to/Main wo saari baatein hawaaon se keh doon/Jo aankhon hi aankhon mein hum ne kahi hain/Ishaaron ishaaron mein hum ne suni hain/Ke aate jaate hue narm jhonke/Har ek raaste per meri raah rokein/Kabhi mere baalon se gajra gira kar/Kabhi merey shaaney ka pallu hila kar/Mujhe is tarah chhed’te hain ke jaise/Wo sab jaante hon(Zehra Nigah “Agar Tum Kaho To).

Aamad (Natural outpouring/Spontaneous)

Literary works, especially poetry, come into being in two different ways. Some materialise spontaneously while others are created consciously. The first kind of literature is the gift of an inspirational moment which can be defined as a moment of aamad. Aamad is, thus, a moment of high creativity in which words descend upon the poets rather instinctively. It means further that the poets may not be aware themselves of such a moment but the poetical works born out of this inspirational condition establish an instant rapport with the reader. Aamad also corresponds with the theory of communication which implies that what the poet communicates is also what the reader also apprehends simultaneously. Such a work bears witness to the poet’s sharp mental faculty, imaginative vitality, and expertise in poetry and poetics.

To add further, poetry born out of a moment of aamad is the poetry of natural utterance when the poem determines its own structure and form. It is a great moment of intersection in which experience, word, meaning, and sound coalesce naturally and find immediate appeal with readers. Aamad corresponds with romantic poetics which subscribes to “spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings”. This does not, however, find favour with the modernist and postmodernist poetics. In spite of this, it is worth noting that the condition of aamad has brought a huge amount of classical texts to the readers through different periods of literary history. 

Reference: Shaghl behtar hai ishq baazi ka/Kya haqeeqi ka kya majaazi ka (Vali Deccani), Khabar-e tahaiur-e ishq sun, na junoon raha, na pari rahi/Na to tuu rahaa, na to main rahaa, jo rahi so bekhabari rahi (Siraj Aurangabadi) Maut ka ek din muayyan hai/Neend kyun raat bhar naheen aati (Asadullah Khan Ghalib), Faqeeraana aaye sada kar chaley/Mian khush raho hum dua kar chale (Meer Taqi Meer), Main koi sangtaraashi ka namoona to naheen/Der se dekhney waaley mujhey patthar na bana (Sultan Akhtar), Achcha sa koi sapna dekho aur mujhey dekho/Jaago to aaeena dekho aur mejhey dekho (Sarwat Hussain).

Aawurd (Laboured/Affected)

Literary works of art which are created deliberately and appear affected are known as creations of the moment of aawurd. Such writing is done with certain planning to create certain impact on the readers. As opposed to natural writing born in a moment of aamad, it is an act of laboured writing. The aawurd poet is conscious of his act of writing and and his poetry can best exemplify poetry for the sake of poetry and ideas for the sake ideas. This poetry cannot achieve the level where poetry is appreciated as felt thought, or thought felt.

To add further, modernist poetics does not reject the poetry of aawurd and proposes instead that poetry cannot necessarily be spontaneous. It favours poetry that shows the sign of cerebral exercise into its making because it considers that poetry is no longer an act of day-dreaming, or sheer romanticising.  However, a considerable amount of modernist poetry can be considered as poetry of aawurd where deliberate aefforts are made at perfecting the poem as a work art.

Reference: Romanticists: Kahaa main ne tera bosa to jaise qand hai pyare/Laga tab kahne per qand-e mukarrar ho naheen sakta/Dil aawaara hua hai yaan kisi ki zulf sey pyare/Elaaj aawaargi ka is se behtar ho naheen sakta (Khwaja Meer Dard), Agar hotey ho tum barham abhi se/To phir hote hain rukhsat hum abhi sey/Bahey aansoo to daaman kya kahega/Hui hai aasteen pur nam abhi se (Sheikh Ibrahim Zauq) Modernists: Yaad karne ke zamaane se bahut aage hain/Aaj hum apne thikaane se bahut aage hain (Zeeshan Sahil), Jidhar nigaah karoon ik naya samundar hai/Ye khwab hai ke koi khwab ka samundar hai  (Aftab Husain), Aasmaan ke seene mein ghum charkha kaat raha hai/Sangmeel/Pehron chaltaa hai aur saakit hai/Raat mujh se pehle jaag gaee hai/Libaas per pade hue dhabbe/Mere bacchon ke dukh the(Sara Shagufta, “Sangmeel Pehron Chalta hai”).

Abadiyat (Sublimity/Eternity)

Abadiyat, or sublimity, denies the constraint, or limitations of time. In other words, it represents timelessness and refers to a time-frame in which past, present and future coalesce together. This may, thus, be called intersection time in which all moments meet and become a part of collective consciousness. In this respect, such a time is sublime and eternal. In the domain of literature, it refers to texts that show the signs of sublimity and appeal to the readers of all ages and all times equally well. As such, abadiyat comes close to aafaaqiyat, or universality.

Many literary texts, especially long poetical and prose narratives, embody the qualities of abadiyat as they underline timeless values. Such texts are also called classics since they represent eternal truth and have had a long history of their survival through time.  In Urdu, the Kulliyaat of Mer, and Ghalib, Meer Amman’s Bagh-o-Bahaar, Meer Anis’s marasiyas, Qurratulain Hyder’s Aag ka Darya may be considered to be meeting the conditions of abadiyat.

References: Duniya mein paadshah hai, so hai wo bhi aadmi/Aur muflis-o gadaa hai, so hai wo bhi aadmi /Zardaar-e be-nawaa hai, so hai wo bhi aadmi/Nemat jo kha raha hai, so hai wo bhi aadmi/Tukde jo maangta hai, so hai wo bhi aadmi//Abdal-o qutb ghaus-o wali, aadmi hue/Munkir bhi aadmi hue aur kufr ke bhare/Kya kya karishme kashf-o karaamaat ke kiye/Hatta ke apne zohd-o-riyaazat ke zore sey/Khaaliq se jaa mila hai, so hai wo bhi aadmi... (Nazeer Akbarabadi, “Aadmi Naamah), Shataabi se uthh saaqiya bekhabar/Ke chaaron taraf maah hai jalwa gar/Bilaureen gulabi mein de bhar ke jam/Ke aaya balandi pe maah-e tamaam/Jawaani kahaan aur kahaan phir ye sin/Masal hai ke hai chaandni char din/Agar mai ke dene mein kuchh dair hai/To phir jaan ye tuu ke andher hai/Wo sone ka jo tha jadaau palang/Ke seemeen tanon ko ho jis per umang/Khinchi chaadar ik us pe shabman ki saaf/Ke ho chaandni jis safa ki ghilaaf... (Meer Hasan, Masnawi Sehr-ul Bayaan).

Ada Bandi (Poeticising gesture)

Poetry that portrays the gestures of the beloved is categorised as the poetry of ada bandi. It underlines the capacity of the poet to capture the physical movements of the beloved and to represent them dramatically. This representation comprises a variety of gestures that include the gestures of hand, feet and lips, movement of eyes and eyebrows, apart from those of coaxing and cajoling which is typical of romanticist poetry.

The poetry of ada bandi is available abundantly in Urdu ghazal, especially in the ghazals of the classical poets where the beloved is eulogised for her form, figure and movement in an exquisite manner.

Reference: Adaa mein waan ada nikley hain laakhon/Main samjha be-adaaai ho chuki bas (Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi), Zara dekhiye un ki sannaayiyaan/Mujhe dekh kar munh banaane lagey (Meer Mehdi Majrooh), Ye chaal ya qayaamat, ye husn ya shararaa/Chalta hai kis thasak se, tuk dekhiyo khudaara (Meer Soze), Zara un ki shokhi to dekhna liye zulf-e khameeda haath mein/Merey peechhe aa ke dabey dabey mujhey saanp keh ke daraa diya (Sultan Jahan Begum), Dekhiye ta-kamar zulf ka shobada/Uljhanein ban gaein daastaan dekhiye (Abdul Mannan Tarzi), Tuu bemisaal sahi phir bhi dil ko hai israar/Adaa adaa ko teri aalam-e misaal kahoon (Rawish Siddiqui), Angdaai bhi wo lene na paai uthha ke haath/Dekha jo mujh ko chhod diye muskura ke haath (Nizam Rampuri).

Ahmaal/Mohmal (Absurd/Bunk)

A sher that follows the rules of meter but does not carry any sense is called mohmal. As such, a mohmal sher does not stir the readers’ imagination in any possible way. Such a sher is completely shorn of logical connectivity and fails to communicate any idea to the reader. In sum, a mohmal sher cannot be understood with the help of reason, logic, imagination or tatiocination.  

Reference: Ishrat ka sukhan sarv-o chaman se bhi hai buland/Insaaf karo yaaro naheen taad mein tadbang (Quratullah Shauq), Tooti darya ki kalaayi zulf uljhi baam mein/Morcha makhmal mein dekha aadmi baadaam mein (Imam Bakhsh Nasikh), Aaraam se wahi hain jo pherein Khuda se munh/Dekho hai murgh-e qibla numa izteraab mein (Imam Bakhsh Nasikh), Pehle to raughan-e gul bhains ke andey se nikaal/Phir dawaa jitni hai kul bhains ke andey se nikaal (Abdul Quadir Chief), Macchliyaan tairti hai kaaron per/Ghodey scooteron ke deewaaney (Bashir Badr).

Alaamat (Symbol)

Alaamat, or symbol, is a cumulus of meaning. It is a figure of speech that goes beyond simile and metaphor. It stands for something that is not obviously suggested but is implicated in a complex manner. An alaamat inflames the imagination of the reader and helps to unravel the universe of intended meaning.

There are different kinds of alaamats. Some are of one-to-one correspondence type while others are layered and complex. Complex alaamats are drawn from mythology history, and such other sources. In addition to these, there are original alaamats also that the poets create on their own and they make demands upon the reader to unravel the hidden layer(s) of meaning that they represent.

Reference: Uttha hai dil-o jaan se dhuan donon hi jaanib/Ye Meer ka divan yahaan bhi hai wahaan bhi (Nida Fazli), Ik mahal ke ghulam gardish meinShaahzaada hai aur lambi raat (Jamal Ehsani), Subh-e wisaal ki kirnain hum se pooch rahi hain/Raatein apne haath mein khanjar kyun rakhti hain (Ishrat Afreen), Merey baahar tujhe aaigi nazar khaak hi khaak/Kaee jugnu kaee mehtaab hain merey andar ( Asad Badayuni), Yoon boli thi chidiya khaali kamre main/Jaise koyi naheen tha khaali kamrey mein (Zeeshan Sahil).

Ashkaal (Complexity/Ambuguity)

Ashkaal, or ambiguity, refers to intricacies involved in the reading, or understanding of a text. This intricacy may be because of language, symbols, metaphors and allusions executed by the poet. The sources of these complexities may lie in social, political, historical or religious references made by the poet. In addition, ashkaal in a text may also be traced in the esoteric style of writing adopted by the poet, or the author. Such a piece of literary composition may even turn too obsure to be understood by the reader. A text filled with ashkaal may turn the text quizzical. However, once the sources of complexity are explored, the reading of the text becomes a pleasant experience. 

References: Zameen geer ho ijz se tuu ke ik din/Ye deewaar ka saaya deewaar hoga (Mer Taqi Meer), Magas ko baagh mein jaane na dena/Ke naahaq khoon parwaane ka hoga (Momin Khan Momin), Naqsh Faryaadi hai kis ki shokhi-e tehreer ka/Kaaghzi hai pairhan har paikar-e tasweer ka (Asadullah Khan Ghalib), Deewaar-e shab aur aks-e rukh-e yaat saamney/Phir dil ke aaeeney se lahu phootne lagaa (Faiz Ahmad Faiz), Jung bhi, tera dhyaan bhi, hum bhi/Siren bhi, azaan bhi, hum bhi (Majeed Amjad), Paaya hai magar khaak basar ahl-e talab mein/Utri ho jahaan husn ki baaraat azizo (Ibne Insha).

Asliyat (Originality)

Asliyat has several layers of meaning. It relates with things, or works of art that are (a) rooted in the realities of the world and are (b) created for the first time. In this respect, it has an element of invention associated with it. It also refers to thoughts, or ideas brought in afresh and to new style of writing with respect to language, philosophy, and literary methods. The search for the New leads a poet, or an author, to find fresh avenues in order to create an original work of art. Such a work is, thus, identified for its unique style, as well as for its substance and is created by those with the highest imaginative faculty at their command.

The works of art representing asliyat can be read with reference to new thoughts, new metaphors and new symbols, as well as new treatment of language. Such works of art turn out to be path-breaking for the subsequent generations. That is how they achieve the status of a classic. Since such works augur a new phase of literary history, they become canonical and serve as a prototype for the subsequent generations of writers. However, there is a philosophical concept regarding asliyat that it does not exist as such since every phenomenon on this earth is only a prototype of the asal, or the original, which does not have a physical existence.

References: Ze haal-e miskeen makun taghaaful, doraai naina, banaaiy batiyaan/Ke tab-e hijraan na daaram ai jaan, ne lehu kaahe lagaai chhatiyaan//Shabaan-e hijraan daraaz chuun zulf, o roz-e waslat choon umr kotaah/Sakhi piya ki jo main na dekhoon to kaise kaatoon andheri ratiyaan (Amir Khusro), Piya baaj pyala piya jaai na/Piya baaj ik til jiya jaai na//Kahithey piya bin saboori karoon/Kahiya jaai amma kiya jaai na (Quli Qutub Shah)
https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/bikat-kahani-mohammad-afzal-afzal-ebooks-5?lang=ur

B

Bahr (Meter of poetry)

Bahr, or metrer, is an essential component of Urdu poetry. It is a framework of syllables put in given combinations of words and line lengths to provide a certain rhythm and internal harmony to a line of poetry. Once a bahr is selected for a sher of the ghazal, the entire ghazal has to be composed in the same bahr to maintain the rhythmic pattern throughout. Bahr also determines the line length and musical pattern of the line.

There are nineteen bahrs in Urdu poetry. While some of them are short, others are medium and long. These bahrs include: rajaz, ramal, baseet, taweel, kaamil, mutadarik, hazaj, mushaakil, medeed, mutaqaarib, mujtaz, muzaara, munsareh, wafer, qareeb, saree, khafeef, jadeed and muqtazeb. Ther are some sub-categories of these bahrs as well. The following ghazal of Ghalib is composed in bahr-e khafeef which is a ten syllabic bahr and belongs to the category of small bahr.

Reference: Koyi ummeed bar naheen aati/Koyi soorat nazar naheen aati//Aagey aati thi haal-e dil pe hansi/Ab kisi baat per naheen aati//Jaantaa hoon sawaab-e taa’at-o zuhd/Per tabeeyat udhar naheen aati//Hai kucch aisi hi baat jo chup hoon/Warna kya baat kar naheen aati//Kaaba kis munh se jaaogi Ghalib/Sharm tum ko magar naheen aati (Asadullah Khan Ghalib).

Balaaghat (Precision and eloquence)

Balaaghat is a significant virtue of poetry. It is characterised by eloquence and marked by precision rather than exposition. It relates with rhetoric and articulacy. It makes the sher pithy and pointed, as well as exceptionally fluent and powerful. Since it draws upon economy of words, it finds instant appeal with the reader. It is, thus, a way of achieving excellence in communication with the reader.

A poet, who draws upon the ways of achieving balaaghat in his sher, does not merely intend to communicate an idea or a thought but he tries to acieve a level of lasting appeal with the reader. Since it is a way of using language imaginatively and creatively, it also marks the depth of the poet’s imagination and his control over striking an artful balance between emotion and expression. Being concerned more with words than meaning, balaaghat creates a unique synchrony between word and meaning and helps to reach the reader in an exceptionally impactful manner.

Reference: Kiya mujh ishq koon zaalim ne aab aahista aahista/Ke aatish gul koon karti hai gulaan aahista aahista (Vali Deccani),Muddat se us khayaal ke aaya hoon beech mein/Gar moo kahoon kamar ko toh gesoo ko kya kahoon (Mirza Mazhar Jaan-e Jaanaan), Kahaa main ne kitna hai gul ka sabaat/Kali ne ye sun kar tabassum kiya (Meer Taqi Meer), Aah ko chhahiye ik umr asar hotey tak/Kaun jeeta hai teri zulf ke sar hotey ta (Asadullah Khan Ghalib), Lazzat kash-e aarzuu hoon Fani/Daanista fareb kha raha hoon (Fani Badayuni), Ye kinaara chalaa ke naao chali/Kahiye kya bat dhyan mein aaee (Yaas Yagana Changezi), Bedam hue beemaar dawaa kyun naheen detey/Tum acche maseeha ho shafaa kyun naheen dete (Faiz ahmad Faiz).

Bandish (Artful Restraint)

Bandish relates broadly with syntax and artful restraint over the use of words in a sher. The impact of the sher depends on how suitably words are placed in a line and how they relate with the next line to complete the circle of meaning in a sher. The key words of the sher are put in the most suitable place so that the burden of the central idea is carried forward with impact. As such, precision is the hallmark of bandish and it marks the vitality of the poet’s imagination and its rapturous power.   

Reference: Tohmatein chand apne zimme dhar chaley/Kis liye aai the hum keedhar chaley (Khwaja Meer Dard), Raftagaan mein jahaan ke hum bhi hain/Saath us karwaan ke hum bhi hain (Meer Taqi Meer) Ne chhed ai nikhat-e baad-e bahaari raah lag apni/Tujhe atkheliyaan soojhi hain, hum bazaar baithhe hain (InshaAllah Khan Insha), Ye pari chehra log kaise hain/Ushwa-o ghamaza-o adaa kya hai (Asadullah Khan Ghalib), Ghar ne apne hosh sambhaala din nikla/Khidki mein bhar gaya ujaala din nikla (Mohammad Alvi).

Barjastagi/Beshaskhtagi (Spontaneity)

Barjastagi refers to spontaneity and it relates with the poet’s imaginative vitality which enables him to respond in poetic terms at the very spur of the moment.  It bears out the poet’s sharp wit which makes it possible for him to write a piece of verse which is clearly marked for its instant appeal. The verse composed at this moment of creative onrush finds appeal with the readers as it is simple, direct and immediate in nature.

Reference: Zindagi hai ya koi toofan hai/Hum to is jeene ke haathon mar chale (Khwaja Meer Dard), Khwab tha ya khayaal tha kyat ha/Hijr tha ya wisaal tha kyat ha (Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi), Aati jaati hai jaa ba jaa badly/Saqiya jald aa hawaa badly (Imam Bakhsh Nasikh), Dil-e naadan tujhe hua kya hai/Aakhir is dard ki dawaa kya hai (Asadullah Khan Ghalib), Hai mashq-e sukhan jaar chakki ki mushaqqat bhi/Ik turfa tamaasha hai Hasrat ki tabiyat bhi (Hasrat Mohani), Raat bhi neend bhi kahaani bhi/Hai kya cheez hai jawaani bhi (Firaq Gorakhpuri).

C

Chaman Bandi (Drawing upon images from garden)

The act of drawing upon images from gardens and orchards to create an atmosphere of gaiety and enjoyment is known as chaman bandi. Such poetry may broadly be called the poetry of garden and nature and may constitute a part of nature poetry. These images of nature also turn out as metaphors and symbols in the text and represent the states of human existence especially in relation to love and romance. 

Reference: Gul phainke hain auron ki taraf balkey samar bhi/Ai khaana bar andaaz-e chaman kucch to idhar bhi (Mirza Mohammad Rafi Sauda), Wo hawa khwah-e chaman hoon ke chaman mein har sub’h/Pehle main aataa hoon aur baad-e sabaa merey baad (Munawwar Khan Ghafil), Kal nazar aayaa chaman mein ik ajab rashk-e chaman/Gul rukh-o gulgoon qabaa-o gulghadaar-o gul badan (Nazir Akbarabadi), Chaman chaman hi naheen hai jo laala naheen/Hum us ko dil naheen kehtey jo daaghdaar naheen (Shankar Lal Shankar).

D

Divan (Complete collection of ghazals)

Divan is a complete collection of the ghazals of a poet arranged in an alphabetical order with respect to the radeef of the sher. It was almost a given practice among the poets of the classical period to publish their divans as it showcased the range of their poetry and expertise over poetry and poetics. A poet with a complete divan to himself was thus treated as a master of the ghazal form and it underlined his artistic and imaginative reach. The idea of putting together a divan is less prevalent in the modern times.

Reference:  https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/deewan-e-wali-ebooks,
https://www.rekhta.org/ebook-detail/deewan-e-ghalib-mirza-ghalib-ebooks-5
https://www.rekhta.org/ebook-detail/deewan-e-nazeer-akbarabadi-ebooks-4/
https://www.rekhta.org/ebook-detail/deewan-e-shad-azimabadi-shad-azimabadi-ebooks
https://www.rekhta.org/ebook-detail/deewan-e-hali-altaf-hussain-hali-ebooks-10

E

Eehaam (Ambiguity)

Eehaam is a way of using a word into two different meanings. It is a way of adding an aspect of rich ambiguity to a sher. While it proves the poet’s ability to exploit the potential of the word, it also invites the reader to ponder over the word for its real meaning.

There are four kinds of eehaam. In one kind, the beauty of the word lies in offering two meanings where one meaning is obvious and the other one is implied. In another kind, the obvious meaning shows up clearly while the real meaning remains hidden and calls for exploration. In yet another kind, the words hold meaning proportionately. Then there is the fourth kind in which two words sound apparently contradictory but they are indeed one.

References: Tashbeeh terey chehra-i raushan se khaak dein/Hum dekhtey hain shama ka saaraa badan safed (Wasti), Maikash ko hawas ayaagh ki hai/Parwaane ko lau charagh ki hai (Shauq), Mohabbat se Ali ki dekh Naji/Hua hai dil hamaara Hyderabad (Naji), Hijr mein ghul ghul ke aadhey ho gaya/Le maseeha ab main Moosa ho gaya (Wazir), Jo terey chashm ke goshey mein dil hai ai pyaare/Nazar padaa hai kaheen khaal khaal aankhon mein (Qayem), Majlis ko ashk-e nazm se raushan chaman karoon/Maddahi-i Hussain bawajh-e Hasan karoon (Mir Babar Ali Anis), Kahe hai gul se shabnam baagh mein donon the hum lekin/Teri qismat mein hansnaa tha, meri qismat mein rona tha (Hasrat).

Eejaaz (Precision)

Eejaz refers to precise and pointed expression. It is a major literary merit which distinguishes all works of art, especially poetry which is defined as “best words in best order”, as opposed to prose, which is defined as “words in best order”. Figures of speech are the preferred tools for the poets which help them towards achieving precision in a work of art. It is because of this quality of a literary text that it finds an instant appeal with the readers. Eejaaz imparts a unique spontaneity to a work of art and it proves the dictum that the magic of words lie in precision than in details.  

Reference: Kahaa main ne kitna hai gul ka sabaat/Kali ne ye sun kar tabassum kiya (Meer Taqi Meer), Hamaari zulf ka har taar Mohan/Hua merey gale ka haar Mohan (Siraj Aurangabadi), Maut ka ek din muayyan hai/Neend kyun raat bhat naheen aati (Asadullah Khan Ghalib), Teri gali mein saaraa din/Dukh ke kankar chunta hoon (Nasir Kazmi), Ped se ped laga rehtaa hai/Pyar hota hai ghaney jungle mein (Mohammad Alvi), Brindaban ke Krishna Kanhaiyya Allahu/Bansi, Radha, Geeta, gayya Allahu (Nida Fazli).

Ehsaaas (Feeling)

Ehsaas, or feeling, is a richly ambiguous condition that engulfs all the living beings day and night. It is closely related with cognition which involves a process of gaining awareness through thought, experience and the five senses. These five senses relate with touch, sight, hearing, smell and taste. They infuse countless feelings and help discern, perceive and apprehend the nature of a moment characterised by a special feeling. These feelings are as diverse and as innumerable as the human beings themselves.

Psychologists have divided feeling into four broad categories that concern pain, pleasure, depression and excitement but all of them are related with the five senses that may appear in complex ways. However, when a feeling becomes intense, it manifests itself as emotion, sentiment and passion which, according to the psychologists, are related with nervous system. Intuition is yet variation on feeling which concerns the ability to acquire knowledge without recourse to conscious reasoning. In other words, it concerns unconscious cognition and inner sensing. Poetry projects feelings in as diverse ways as the poets are themselves. Since feeling is the essential element of poetry, it turns the reader into a participant in the feeling that the poet shares through his text.    

Reference: Un ki aankhon ne Khuda jaane kiya kya jaaduu/Ke tabiyat meri maayil kabhi aisi to na thi (Bahadur Shah Zafar), Apni dhun mein rehta hoon/Main bhi tere jaisa hoon (Nasir Kazmi), Shab ke sannate mein chattanon ko dekho ai Zeb/Tum se begaana-i faryaad-o fughaan aur bhi hain (Zeb Ghauri), Khuda aise ehsaas ka naam hai/Rahey saamne aur dikhaai na de (Bashir Badr), Takleef mit gayi magar ehsaas reh gaya/Khush hoon ke kuchh na kucch to mere pass reh gaya (Abdul Hameed Adam), Aagahi, karb, wafa, sabr, tamanna, ehsaas/Merey hi seene mein utre hain ye khanjar saarey (Bahir Farooqui).

F

Fard (Individual Sher)

An individual sher is known as fard. A sher in a ghazal may also be referred to as fard. A sher where both the lines are not written in the same qafia is also known as fard. Many poets have written a single sher which they did not, or could not, develop further into a full ghazal. Such individual shers are also known as fard.

Reference: Shaakh-e gul hai ya nehaal-e raaz hai/Sarv-o qad hai ya saraapa naaz hai (Vali Deccani), Bus na lag chal naseem mujh sey ke main/Reh gaya hoon charagh saa bujh kar (Meer Taqi Meer), Ishq-e khaal-e butaan se hogi nijaat/Kyunke nukta nawaaz Allah hai (Mazaq).

Fasaahat (Eloquence)

Fasaahat is a quality of sher characterised by masterly use of poetic diction by poets with keen auditory imagination. It bears out the poet’s eloquence and his felicity with language and its use with remarkable expertise in a literary context. Fasaahat shows the ability of the poet to syncronise word, meaning and rhythm together in order to cast lasting impact on the reader. 

Reference: Saaf maidaan laamakaan sa ho mera dil khule/Bund hoon maamoora-i duniya ki deewaaron ke beech (Meer Taqi Meer), Khabar-e tahayyur-e ishq sun na junoon raha na pari rahi/Na to tuu raha na to main rahaa jo rahi so bekhabari rahi (Siraj Aurangabadi), Us ghaiarat-e naaheed ki har taan hai Deepak/Shola sa lapak jaai hai aawaaz to dekho (Momin), Khoob parda hai ke chilman se lagey baithhey hain/Saaf chhuptey bhi naheen saamney aate bhi naheen (Dagh Dehlavi).

Fikr (Thinking)

Fikr does not relate merely with an idea or a thought as it has its basis in rationality. It may even have a metaphysical touch or aura about it. A poetical composition with strands of fikr leads the reader to unravel and appreciate the reality of an object, or a manifestation. Instead of making an emotional appeal, a verse representing a fikr invites the reader to meditate upon it and realise the depth of its philosophy.  

However, as poetry is not all about fikr, the poet draws upon a fikr and uses it in a creatve manner so that it does not become an exercise in sheer philosophising.  Thus, a poet, with a sense of critical discrimination, transforms a fikr into a valuable creative experience for the reader. As such, fikr is sublimated as a felt thought and stays on with the reader for its philosophical as well as poetic merit.

Reference: Raftagaan mein jahaan ke hum bhi hain/Saath is karwaan ke hum bhi hain (Mer Taqi Meer), Bazeechaa-i atfaal hai duniya mere aagey/Hota hai shab-o roze tamaasha merey aagey (Ghalib), Qann’at na ka aalam-r rung-boo per/Chaman aur bhi aashiyaan aur bhi hain (Mohammad Iqbal), Tamaam daftar-e hikmat palat gaya hoon main/Magar khula na abhi tak kahaan hoon, kya hoon main (Asghar Gondvi).

Filbadeeh (Instant Utterance)

Poetry written out of a creative rush, or a moment of immediate response to a situation, is known as filbadeeh poetry. This is the poetry of instant utterance and miraculously sums up the condition that led to its creation. Filbadeeh poetry bears out the sharp wit of the poet and his disciplined response to a situation with complete care for the requirements of a sher with respect to meter. Since it is an instant outpouring of passion, the listeners praise the skill of the poet rather than evaluate the merit of the sher.

Many of the classical poets are known to have mastered this art and made a place for themselves in this respect. Ghulam Hamadani Mus’hafi is known to be a master of filbadeeh poetry. Ghalib’s also composed a verse of this kind when he was asked to write shers on a fresh betel nut.  

Reference: Hai jo sahib ke kaf-e dast pe ye chikni dali/Zeb deta hai usey jis qadar achha kahiye/Khaama angusht badandaan ke usey kya kahiye/Natiqa sar-ba-garebaan ke usey kya kahiye (Ghalib).

G

Gudaaz (Pathos)

A poetical composition that arouses the sense of pathos in the readers is known as the poetry of gudaaz. Such a composition is capable of earning the instant appeal with the reader, or listener. It is the kind of poetry that draws essentially upon human emotions. Being the the poetry of larger human sympathies, the poetry of gudaaz  has had its appeal through ages as it deals with essential human predicament.

References: Chali samt-e ghaib se wo hawa ke chaman suroor ka jal gaya/Magar ek shaakh-e nihaal-e gham jisey dil kahein so hari rahi (Siraj Aurangabadi), Shama ki maanind hum is bazm mein/ Chasm-e tar aaye the daaman tar chaley (Khwaja Meer Dard), Mar gaye mar gaye naheen to naheen/Khaak se munh ko dhaankey hum bhi hain (Meer Taqi Meer), Baat karni mujhey mushkil kabhi aisi to thi/Ab hai jaisi teri mehfil kabhi aisi to na thi (Bahadur Shah Zafar), Dard-e heyaat-e ishq hai naghma-i jaan gudaaz mein/Gharq hai saari kaainaat lazzat-e soze-o saaz mein (Ram Krishna Muztar).

H

Haasil-e Ghazal (The best sher of ghazal)

All the shers of a ghazal that address a variety of moods or situations do not have the same appeal and depth all the time. This implies that the sher which distinguishes itself as the best of the shers in a ghazal is known as haasil-e ghazal. This sher gets the best of the praise from the readers, or audience. However, deciding on the haasil-e ghazal sher is always a relative issue as there can be no unanimity in proclaiming a particular sher as the haasil-e ghazal.

Reference:Ye kinaara chalaa ke naao chali/Kahiye kya baat dhyan mein aai (Yaas Yagana Changezi), Us ghairat-e naaheed ki har taan hai Deepak/Shola sa lapak jaai hai aawaaz to dekho (MominKhan Momin), Maana ke teri deed ke qaabil naheen ho main/Tuu mera shauq dekh mera intizaar dekh (Mohammad Iqbal), Tum mukhaatib bhi ho qareeb bhi ho/Tum ko dekhein ke tum se baat karein (Firaq Gorakhpuri).

I

Ibhaam (Ambiguity)

Ibhaam relates with the uncertainty, ambiguity and multiplicity of meaning. This may have its roots in the multiple contexts of language, metaphor, symbol, myth, semantics and morphology. Each of these in its multiple ways may be a source of ibhaam in a text apart from those rooted in history, society and culture. Such a text may remain inscrutable, nebulous, or obscure for the reader unless he chooses to engage critically with it to make out one, or more meanings, out of it.

It may be interesting to note that a simple text may turn out to be more ambiguous and full of ibhaam than a complex text which implies that ibhaam is not a matter specific to seemingly complex texts. It must also be added that ambiguity is not a vice but a virtue in a literary text since it enriches the text in multiple ways and adds value to it.  

References: Khwab tha ya khayaal tha kyat ha/Hijr tha ya wisaal tha kyat ha (Ghulam Hamadani Mus’hafi)Subh’a tak shama sir ko dhunti rahi/Kya patinge ne iltemaas kiya (Meer Taqi Meer), Naqsh faryaadi hai kis ki shokhi-i tehreer ka/Kaaghzi hai pairhan har paikar-e tasweer ka (Ghalib), Us ghairat-e naheed ki har taan hai Deepak/Shola salapak jaai hai aawaaz to dekho (Momin Khan Momin)Ye kinaara chala ke naao chali/Kahiye kya baat dhyan mein aaee (Yaas Yagana Changezi), Jung bhi, tera dhyan bhi, hum bhi/Siren bhi, azaan bhi, hum bhi (Majeed Amjad), Mujh se aankh milaaye kaun/Main tera aaeena hoon (NasirKazmi).

Ibtezaal (Vileness/Vulgaity)

Ibtezaal refers to things crude, lewd and licentious. It violates the decency and norms of cultured thinking and expression. It is a sign of lascivious imagination and shows inclination towards lust and lechery. Since it is too coarse and bawdy, it cannot be a part of civilised social discourse.

There is a whole body of such poetical works available in Urdu which expresses shamelessness in different ways. They broadly fall into two categories: in one category there are works that express obscene thoughts but in another category, there are works that use obscene words. Both these kinds of texts violate moral norms.

Reference: Kapde Chirkeen jab badalte hain/Itr ke badle moot maltey hain//Naheen kahtey hain ghair hum ko bura/Apney munh se ye goo ugaltey hain (Sheikh Baqar Ali Chirkeen), Mehtaraani ho ke raani muskuraigi zuroor/Chaahe kucch bhi ho jawaani rung laaigi zuroor (Josh Malihabadi), Lauda jihad karta hua run mein ghus gaya/Baithhe rahe ye khatte, ye kuffar gaand per (Azhar Inayti), Tamaam raat bharey ghar ne paasbaani ki/Magar wo chud ke raheen, khair ho jawaani ki/Uthhaai phirti hain ab pet nau naheena ka/Zara si gosht ki boti ne ye garaani ki (Anon), Zara thehr abba idhar aa gaye/Ari saali jaldi se jumper gira (Adil Mansoori).   

Isteaara (Metaphor)

Isteaara, or metaphor, is one of the most important figures of speech in literature, especially in poetry. It is an extended and implied comparison. As a unit of figurative language, it states one thing for the other. There are different kinds of isteaara that include absolute, extended, implied, mixed, rooted and dead isteaaras. Absolute isteaaras bring two things together which are apparently disconnected. Extended isteaaras bear out the imaginative vitality of the poet as they imply deep comparisons and call for deciphering its meaning. Implied isteaaras are indirect ones and bring two things together that don’t bear upon one another in direct terms. Mixed isteaara weaves a complex web of meaning where more than one comparison is brought together. Root and dead isteaara are those that have lost their sheen because of frequent use and have become clichés. All isteaaras, however, bears the sign of the poet’s imaginative vitality that proves the dictum—stronger the imagination, better the isteaara which guarantees a long life to the text.

References: Zeena sabaa ka dhoondhti hai apni musht-e khaak/Baam-e buland yaar ka hai aastaana kya (Haider Ali Atash), Ik Nazar besh naheen Fursat-e hasti Ghalib/Garmi-i bazm hai ik raqs-e sharer hotey tak (Ghalib), Uthhaai haath to angdaai isteaara baney/Wo tab-o tab hai ke dil bhi ghizaal hai us ka (Abul Hasnat Haqqi), Wo shola saaz bhi usi jungle ke log the/Un ki gali mein raqs-e hawaa kyun naheen hua (Irfan Siddiqui), Baarish ka badan tha us ka hansna/Ghunchey ka wisaal us ka haq tha (Kishwer Naheed), Main ek lehr hoon apne makaan mein aur phir/Hujoom-e koocha-o bazaar ik samundar hai (Sarwat Hussain).

Istifaada (Gaining Advantage)

Istifaada is an act of seeking and gaining advantage by drawing upon a variety of sources. These sources include a literary mentor, an inspirational poet or author, a particular style of writing, a particular school of writing, a period of literary history, a literary movement and certain linguistic and literary manners. A poet may draw upon these to enrich his sensibility and strengthen the skill to write with greater vitality and meaningfulness. All these sources provide with a tradition to the poet which he may draw upon by using his individual talent to distinguish himself as a poet.

Reference: Tha wo bhi ik zamaana naaley jab aatsheen they/Charon taraf se jungle jalta dehar dehar tha (Meer), Aag chaaron ore lagi hai patti patti bhadak rahi hai/Dhad dhad jalti hain sab shaakhein, dekhoon aur guzarta jaoon (Ahmad Mushtaq), Raste se chaak-e dil ke ho aagaah/Yaar tak phir to kis qadar hai raah (Meer Taqi Meer), Jab tak dehaan zakhm na paida kare koi/Mushkil hai tujh se raah-e sukhan waa karey koi (Asadullah Ghalib), Tarafdaar Ghalib ke hum bhi rahey/Magar Meer se istifaada kiya (Farooque Engineer).

Itteba (Imitation/Following/Obedience)

Itteba refers to imitation. It amounts to following a stance, or style of the other poet, or author. This is not an unconscious but a deliberate act on the part of the subsequent author. Being different from “influence”, itteba comes close to imitation or showing allegiance to an author who may be serving as a model. Major authors and poets serve as authentic models for the poets and authors who follow them.

However, one also needs to keep in mind that art itself is an imitation of life which is represented in myriad ways. In the process of imitating life, a literary texts may show signs of itteba in terms of content, language, diction and modes of expression.. To add further, itteba is not a negative act as it also helps the subsequent author to grow and acquire an identity of one’s own.

Reference: Patta patta, boota boota, haal hamaara jaane hai/Jaaney na jaaney gul hi na jaaney baagh to saara jaane hai (Meer Taqi Meer), Shehron shehron mulkon mulkon aawaara phirtey hain hum/Raah-e wafaa ka zarra zarra naam hamaara jaane hai (Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi), Jo guzri mujh pe mut us sekaho hua so hua/Bala kashaan-e mohabbat pe jo hua so hua (Mohammad Rafi Sauda), Karein na yaad shab-e haadsa hua, sohua/Bhula dein aao har ik waaqia hua so hua (Hasan Naim)/Rahnaward-e bayabaan-eghum, sabr kar, sabr kar/Karwaan phir milngey baham, sabr kar sabr kar (Nasir Kazmi).

Kaifiyat (Condition of being)

Kaifiyat is a certain condition of being. It reflects an emotional state which takes the reader into its grip.  This overwhelimg condition may be related with the romantic or mystical experiences which cast a spell on the reader. Kaifiyat is, thus, a reflection of a mental and a psychological state into which the reader passes after reading a text. Snce it is an overpowering condition of being; only a poet, or author, with strong imaginative capability can create such a condition in the text.

Reference: Dard-e dil kucch kahaa jataa naheen jaata/Aah chup bhi raha naheen jaata (Qayem Chandpuri), Sirhaane Meer ke aahista bolo/Abhi tuk rote rote so gaya hai (Meer Taqi Meer), Tum merey pass hote ho goya/Jab koi doosra naheen hota (Momin), Tera Jamaal hai, tera khayaal hai tuu hai/Mujhey ye fursat-e kaawish kahaan ke kya hoon main (Asghar Gondvi), Ye raat wo hai ke soojhe jahaan na haath ko haath/Khayaalo duur na jaao bahut andhera hai (Firaq Gorakhpuri).

Khayaal (Idea/Thought)

Khayaal is essentially a philosophical concept. It represents a mental image of a reality that manifests itself in multiple ways. In essence, it is the product of human imagination and appears as an idea, or thought. A khayaal may emerge from any of the senses, as well as any of the extermnal or internal manifestations. It may be generated by a feeling, an image, a metaphor, or a symbol and may be both simple as well as complex. Their appeal depends necessarily on how the author, or the poet, treats it in a text. A primary khayaal contained in a text may also be supported by a subsidiary khayaal and all of them, taken together, may create a body of thought, or philosophy.

Reference: Saaf maidaan laamakaan saa ho to hamaara dil khuley/Bund hoon mamoora-i duniya ki deewaaron ke beech (Meer Taqi Meer) Naqsh faryaadi hai kis ki shokhiye tehreer ka/Kaaghzi hai pairhan har paikar-e tasweer ka (Asadullah Khan Ghalib), Bistar-e khaak pe baithha hoon na masti hai na hosh/Zarre sab saakit-o jaamid hain sitaare khaamosh (Asghar Gondvi), Har rag-e khoon mein phir charaaghaan ho/Saamney phir wo benaqaab aaye (Faiz Ahmad Faiz).

Kinaaya (Hint/Sign/Reference)

Kinaaya is an indirect refrence to a person, situation, or condition. When a poet does not directly express an idea through one-to-one correspondence, he uses kinaaya through an image, simile, metaphor, or symbol. It adds to the value of the text and imparts it a literary value. Kinaaya is a literary technique of making a hint, or flagging a sign in a text which my help the reader appreciate the value of an idea, or experience, as projected in it.

Reference: Daam-e har mauj mein hai halqa-i sad kaam-e nahang/Dekhein kya guzre hai qatre pe guhar hite tak (Asadullah Ghalib), Fani Dakan mein aa ke ye uqda khula ke hum/Hindostan mein rehtey hain Hindostaan se duur (Fani Badayuni), Partaw-e mehr hi zauq-e rum-e bedaari de/Bistar-e gul pe hai ik qatra-i shabnam khamosh (Asghar Gondvi),Nahi Hawas waqt-e  josh-o masti qad-e khameeda se to hayaa kar/Buton ka banda rahega kab tak Khuda Khuda kar KhudaKhuda kar (Hawas).

Kulliyaat (Complete works)

As the name suggests, kulliyaat is the complete works of a poet put together. It is arranged chronologically as well as form-wise. Kulliyaat offers a comprehensive view of poet’s complete works and helps develop a cumulative undersanding of the growth and development of the poet.

Reference: https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/kulliyat-sultan-mohammadd-quli-kutubshah-quli-qutub-shah-ebooks
https://www.rekhta.org/ebook-detail/kulliyat-e-jazbi-moin-ahsan-jazbi-ebooks
 https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/kulliyat-ahmad-mushtaq-ebooks

L

Lafziyaat (Diction)

Poetry is composed with a selection of words from a language. Sunch words are known as the lafziyaat, or the diction of the poem. As such, the poet alone knows which of the words would best suit the need of the sher. Every poet conceives his own set of lafziyaat by which he is identified. Lafziyaat is also determined by the age and the individual sensibility of the poet.

Reference: Piyaa baj pyala piya jaai na/Piyaa baaj yek til jia jaai na (Quli Qutub Shah), Kiya mujh ishq koon zaalim ne aab aahista aahista/Ke aatish gul koon karti hai gulaab aahista aahista (Vali Deccani), Accha to khafaa hum se tum ai sanam accha/Lo hum bhi na blolengey Khuda ki qasam achha (InshaAllah Khan Insha), Sun to sahi jahaan mein hai tera fasaana kya/Kehti hai tujh se khalq-e Khuda ghaaibaana kya (Haider Ali Atash), Hai justujuu ke khoob se hai khoobtar kahaan/Ab thehrati hai dekhiye jaa kar nazar khaaan (Altaf Hussain Hali), Suna hai log usey aankh bhar ke dekhtey hain/So us ke shahr mein kucch din theher ke dekhtey hain (Ahmad Faraaz).

Lehja (Tone)

Lehja is tone which characterises a text. It is a way of addressing and is characterised by tonal variations with respect to the nature of the text. It also incorporates sound and gesture which together determine the message projected through a text. In addition, lehja adds layers of meaning to the text and also defines the auditory quality of the text. Lehja matters the most in defining the nature of the text and determing its appeal among the readers through the tone and tenor.

Reference: Jaan-o dil se main giraftar hoon kin ka unka/Banda-i be zar-o deenaar hoon kin ka unka (Siraj Aurangabadi), Hum to chaltey hain lo Khuda hafiz/But kadey ke buto Khuda Haafiz (Bahadur Shah Zafar), Dil-e naadaan tujhe hua kya hai/Aakhir is dard ki dawaa kya hai (Asadullah Khan Ghalib), Bedam hue beemar dawaa kyun naheen dete/Tum acche maseeha ho shafa kyun naheen dete (Faiz Ahmad Faiz), Karein na yaad shab-e haadsa hua so hua/Bhula dein aao har ik waaqeya hua so hua (Hasan Naim).

M

Ma’aani (Meaning)

Ma’ani refers to the core of meaning. It is related with perceptions and senses. Meaning appears in two broad ways and they may be identified as rational meaning and illusory meaning. However, it is the rational meaning that is contained in words whereas the illusory meaning is hidden in manifestations beyond language. In addition, meaning is contextual also.

To add further, words represent an idea which relates with established ideas and truths but meaning relates with the taste, ecstasy and elation that meaning invokes. Essentially, meaning relates with how one perceives these conditions. It has also to be kept in mind that matter and meaning are two different things. Matter invokes subject while meaning invokes different interpretations of the subject. Thus, what a sher is about is the subject and what the sher suggests is its meaning.

Reference: Shaam se kucch bujhaa saa rehtaa hoon/Dil hua hai chiraagh muflis ka (Meer Taqi Meer), Chamka hai meri khaak mein terey lahuu ka rung/Yaani merey kiye ki sazaa hai terey liye (Zafar Iqbal), Zindagi jaisi tawaqqo thi naheen kucch kam hai/Har ghadi hota hai mehsoos kaheen kucch kam hai (Shahryar), Wo log jo zinda hain mar jaaiyengey ik din/Ik raat ke raahi hain guzar jaaingey ik din (Saqi Farooqui), Wo shola saaz bhi usi basti ke log they/Un ki gali mein raqs-e hawaa kyun naheen hua (Irfan Siddiqui).

Mahaakaat (Mimesis/Imitation/Representation)

Mahaakaat relates with the larger problematic of how a poet, or an author, chooses to make a literary representation of his experiences and objects through senses. These senses are of different kinds and are related with sight, sound, smell, taste and touch. The help develop different kinds of perceptions which form the core of literary representation. All these senses synchronise best in the case of poetry which help the poets make a literary representation based on perceptions. As such, sentiments, thoughts and feelings acquire their lives through their representation in literary texts.

Mahaakaat also relates with negotiation between word and their meaning and the ways of representing them in a text. As such, it relates with real picturisation, or representation, of an object. Mahaakaat brings the reader close to the perception that an author, or the poet represents in a text.

Reference: Qismat to dekho tooti hai jaa kar kahaan kamand/Do chaar haath jab ke lab-e baam rah gaye (Qayem Chandpuri),  Chaap sun kar jo hataa di thi uthha la saqi/Sheikh sahib hain main samajhta tha musalmaan haikoyi (Shad Arfi), Angdaai bhi wo leney na paaye uthha ke haath/Dekha jo mujh ko chhod diye muskura ke haath (Nizam Rampuri), Zara un ki sokhi to dekhna liye zulf-e khamshuda haath mein/Merey paas aaye dabey dabey mujhe saap keh ke dara diya  (Sultan JahaanBegum).

Majmooa (Collection)

As the term indicates, majmooa refers to the collection of works by a poet which is different from the complete works, or kulliyaat. It is a collection of selected works which gives an idea of the poet’s engagements with various subjects, forms and genres.

Reference: https://www.rekhta.org/ebook-detail/aatish-e-gul-jigar-moradabadi-ebooks-4
https://www.rekhta.org/ebook-detail/gul-e-naghma-kulliyat-e-firaq-ka-pahla-hissa-firaq-gorakhpuri-ebooks-1
https://www.rekhta.org/ebook-detail/firozan-moin-ahsan-jazbi-ebooks

Mawaraaiyat (Beyond/Meta)

The representation of things beyond the commonplace as well as those beyond common perceptions, or senses, is called maawaraaiyat. It relates with things beyond the physical and aspires to reach out to the metaphysical. This implies that mawaraaiyat does not relate with the actual as they appear. This implies that a literature which represents mawaraaiyat has a philosophical aura about it. Such literature unravels the larger questions of life and the world and may sometimes also represent a utopian view of human existence and natural phenomenon.   

Reference: Bekhudi le gayi kahaan hum ko/Der se intizaar hai apna (Meer Taqi Meer), Manzar ik balandi per aur hum banaa saktey/Kaash ke udhar hota arsh se makaan apna (Asadullah Ghalib), Wo aalam-e baalaa to terey dil mein makeen hai/Jis aalam-e baalaa ka hawaala naheen miltaa (Mashkoor Hussain Yaad).

Maqta (Last sher of ghazal)

Maqta is the last sher of a ghazal. This is where the poet uses his pen name, or takhallus, if he so wishes. With this, the ghazal reaches an end and imparts it a sense of completion. Maqta follows the same metrical pattern with which the ghazal begins of which the first sher is known as matla.

Reference: Na utthna ghar se Mazhar ka na jaaye/Koyi milney ke kab qaabil raha hai (Mazhar Jaan-e Jaanaan), Kahaan gardish falak ki chain deti hai hamein Insha/Ghaneemat hai ki hum-suurat yahaan dochaar baitthe hain (InshaAllah Khan Insha), Zeest se tang ho ai Dagh to jeete kyun ho/ Jaan pyari bhi naheen jaan sejaate bhi naheen (Dagh).

Matla (First sher of ghazal)

The first sher of a ghazal is called matla. It must fall within a metrical pattern and have a qafia and radeef in both the lines of the sher. As an opening sher of the ghazal, it lays the parameter for the succeeding shers that fall in the same metrical pattern and follow the same pattern qafia and radeef.

Reference: Hari sunehri khaak udaaney waala main/Shafaq shajar tasweer banaaney waala main (Rajender Manchanda Bani), Ye kehna to naheen kaafi ke bus pyare lagey hum ko/Unhein kaise bataaein hum kewo kaise lagey hum ko (Ahmad Mushtaq), Der tak raushni rahi kal raat/Main ne odhi thi chaandni kal raat (Zehra Nigah).

Matla-i Saani/Husn-e Matla/Zeb-e Matla (Second matla of the ghazal)

Matla-i saani is the second sher of the ghazal which follows the same metrical pattern as the first sher which is known as matla. It is also known as husn-e matla, or zeb-e matla.

Reference: Saqi ki har nigaah pe bal kha ke pee gayaa/Lehron se kheltaa hua lehra ke pee gayaa//Bekaifiyon ke kaif se ghabraa ke pee gaya/Tauba ko tode taad ke ghabraa ke ppee gaya (Jigar Moradabadi), Nazar aur dil ko bachaanaa bhi hai/Nazar aap hi se milaana bhi hai//Mohabbat ka har bhed paanaa bhi hai/Mgar apna daaman bachaanaa bhi hai (Asrarul Haq Majaz).

Mizaaj (Temper)

A mood that typifies a text is known as mizaaj. It defines the basic identity of the text which, in a way, defines the nature of the author, or poet, who creates the text. It refers to the text’s tone and tenor, its basic mood by which it is characterised.

Reference: Mujh ko shaair na kaho Meer ke sahib main ne/Dard-o ghum jamma kiye itne to divan kiya (Meer Taqi Meer), Shaam se kucch bujhaa saa rehta hoon/Dil hua hai chiraagh muflis ka (Meer Taqi Meer), Ghum rahaa jab tak ked um mein dum rahaa/Dil ke jaane ka nihaayat ghum raha (Meer Taqi Meer), We din gaye ki aankhein darya si bahtiyaan then/Sookha pada ab to muddat se ye doaaba (Meer Taqi Meer).

Paikar (Image)

Paikar is a mental picture. In other words it is “a picture made out of words”. It concerns our sense perceptions. So, there are visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory images and also those that relate with the sense of taste. Since poetry is not a matter of making prosaic statements, it depends heavily upon images to represent an idea, or an experience. It is a medium of representation and communication with the readers in precise terms.

References: Aawaaz ki deewaar bhi chup chaap khadi thi/Khidki se jo dekhaa to gali oongh rahi thi (Adil Mansoori), Na aayaa maza shab ki tanhaaiyon mein/Sahar ho gai chand angdaaiyon mein (Kaif Bhopli), Khwab tha ankhon mein meri, main ne aankhein khol deen/Aur us khushboo ko saare mein bikhar jaane diya (Aftab Husain), Lakeeron se bandhi taqdeer gum sum/Hatheli ki har ik tadbeer gum sum (Khursheed Akbar), Aankhein hai chakachaund pe jhilmil to likhunga/Main tera saraapa na sahi til to likhunga (Asufta Changezi), Bazaahir rang, khushboo, raushni ik jaan hotey hain/Magar ye shahr ander se bahut weeraan hotey hain (Islam Azmi).

Q

Qafia (Word of similar sound)

Qafia is a word, or a phrase, of similar sound which appears repeatedly before the last word/phrase of a sher which is known as radeef. It imparts a definite rhythmic character to the sher. It also bears witness to the poet’s ability to identify words which synchronise well with the rhythmic structure of the sher and gel well with the radeef which follows it.

Reference: Is daur-e be-junoon ki kahaani koyi likho/Jismon ko barf khoon ko paani koyi likho//Koyi kaho ke haath qalam kis tarah hue/Kyun ruk gayi qalam ki rawaani koyi likho//Kyun ahl-e shauq sarw-o garebaan hain dosto/Kyun khoon ba-dil hai ahd-e jawaani koyi likho (Ahad Faraz).

R

Radeef

Radeef is a word, or expression, that appears repeatedly at the end of the second line in a ghazal, or any other composition that follows the pattern of shers. Unlike the qafia, it remains constant and imparts a form and a rhtymic pattern to the sher individually and the entire ghazal cumulatively.   

Reference:  Ugaa sabza dar-o deewar per aahista aahista/Hua khali sadaaon se nagar aahista aahista//Ghira baadal khamoshi se khizaan aasaar baaghon mein/Hiley thandi hawaaon se shajar ahista aahista//Chamak zar ki use aakhir makaan-e khaak tak laayi/Banaaya naag ne jimson mein ghar aahista ahista (Muneer Niyazi).

Riwaayat (Tradition)

Riwaayat, or tradition, refers to the continuity of the past into the present and the handing over of predominant values, or standards to the succeeding generations. It draws upon history and reflects mores, manner, norms and rituals which continue with time, or get transformed through the subsequent ages. As such, riwaayat offers a base for the present to redefine itself in terms of the past and its predominant values. In the domain of literature also, riwaayat is passed from one generation to another and it is incessantly revised, altered, or improved upon by the indidual talent which creates a new set of literary values. It relates with the revision of language, style and sensibility in a broader way. Tradition is aso reflected in the attitude one develops towards an object or institution.   

Reference: Saath duniya ka naheen taalib-e duniya detey/Apne kutton ko ye murdaar liye phirti hai (Imdad Imam Asar), Duniya ka hoon duniya ka talbgaar naheen hoon/Baazaar se guzra hoon khareedaar naheen hoon (Akbar), Tere aazaad bandon ki na ye duniya na wo duniya/Yahaan marney ki paabundi wahaan jeene ki paabandi (Mohammad Iqbal), Duniya hai khwab haasil-e duniya khayaal hai/Insaan khwab dekh rahaa hai khayaal mein (Seemaab Akbarabadi), Duniya mein suraagh-e rah-e duniya naheen milta /darya mein utar jaaein to darya naheen milta (Ahmad Mushtaq).

Riyaat-e lafzi (Combination of words for auditory appeal)

As suggested by the term itself, riyaat-e lafzi is the art of putting two words together in a sher that bear close resemblance to each other in sound but not exactly in meaning. With this technique, the poet creates an auditory appeal in the sher but also draws upon its musicality to invoke meaning. To put briefly, riyaat-e lafzi extends the area of meaning but it is not directly related to the prime meaning of the sher.

Reference: Galey lagte hi jitney giley the bhool gaye/Wwagarna yaad theen hum ko shikaayatein kya kya (Haider Ali Atash), Yoon na baatein chabaa chabaa ke karo/Mehrabaan baat hain nabaat haheen (Khwaja Meer Dard).

S

Sehl-e Mumtana (simple words with deeper meaning )

Sehl-e mumtana refers to a kind of poetic rendition which gives precedence to simplicity over complexity. This implies that even the most complex ideas can be put forward in short lines, simple words and simple style. It is marked by the ease of diction and a natural way of expression. The shers of sehl-e mumtana are marked by unassuming use of words and manners of expression. To put briefly, sehl-e mumtana facilitates the poet to achieve deeper impact by drawing upon spontaneous ways of expression.  

Reference: Gham raha jab tak ked um mein dum raha/Dil ke jaane ka nihaayat gham raha (Meer Taqi Meer), Tumhari zulf ka har taar Mohan/Hua merey galey ka haar Mohan (Siraj Aurangabadi), Khwab tha ya khayaal tha kya tha/Hijr tha ya wisaal tha kyat ha (Ghulam Hamadani Mus’hafi), Aati jaati hai jab a jaa badli/Saaqia jald aa hawaa badli (Imam Bakhsh Nasikh), Hum bhi munh mein zabaan rakhtey hain/Kaash pooccho ke muda’a kya hai (Asadullah Khan Ghalib), Kis ki aawaaz kaaan mein aayi/Duur ki baat dhyan mein aai (Yaas Yagana Changezi), Roshni kucch to miley jungle mein/Aag lag jaai ghaney jungle mein (Mohammad Alvi).

Sheriyaat (Poetics)

Sheriyaat, or poetics, relates broadly with the art and science poetry. It engages with the principles of literary composition, aesthetic standards, values of literary writing, and standards of appreciation. It defines the criterion of beauty in literary composition by which a literay production may be evaluated.

Reference: https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/urdu-sheriyat-ebooks
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https://www.rekhta.org/ebook-detail/fiction-sheriyaat-tashkeel-o-tanqeed-gopi-chand-narang-ebooks
https://www.rekhta.org/ebook-detail/maghribi-wa-mashriqi-sheriyat-ek-jaiza-vahaab-ashrafi-ebooks

Sheriyat (Poetic beauty)

Sheriyat refers to a particular poetic condition that a sher creates on the reader. It originates in the novel use of the figures of speech and a particular use of diction that creates an internal rhythm in the verse. Sheriyat concerns the essential mood of the verse and creates a deep imact on the readers. It takes the readers beyond the physical and inspires them emotionally rather than ratiocinatively. It is characterised by internal rhythm, exquisiteness of meaning, and synchronisation of thoughts and feelings.   

Reference: Us ghairat-e naaheed ki har taan hai Deepak/Shola sa lapak jaai hai aawaaz to dekho (Momin Khan Momin), Phool khile hai gulshan gulshan/Lekin apna apna daaman (Jigar Moradabadi), Shaam bhi thi dhuan dhuan husn bhi tha udaas udaas/Dil ko kayi kahaaniyaan yaad si aa ke reh gaein (Firaq Gorakhpuri), Aaye kucch abr kucch sharaab aaye/Us ke baad aaye jo azaab aaye (Faiz Ahmad Faiz), Seedhi hai rah-e shauq pa yoonbhi kabhi kabhi/Kham ho gayi hai gesu-e dildaar ki tarah (Majrooh Sultanpuri).

T

Ta’alli (Exaggeration)

Ta’alli is a way of self-praise. This may cross the limits of reason and logic and the poet may present humself in an exalted manner. Since poets are known to create images and turn them into concrete universals, a verse of ta’alli may not necassraily be taken as an example of false-posturing. It may sometimes be a way of recogninsing oneself in a context blown out of proportion with by drawing upon the art of turning the unreal into real.

Reference: Saarey aalam per hoon main chhaayaa hua/Mustanad hai mera farmaayaa hua (Meer Taqi Meer), Hain aur bhi duniya mein sukhanwar bahut acchey/Kahtey hain ke Ghalib ka hai andaaz-e bayaan aur (Asadullah Khan Ghalib), Qayem main kiya taur-e ghazal rekhta warna/Ik baat lachar si ba-zabaan-e Dakani thi (Qayem Chandpuri), Dekhey jo mujhey jahaan ko dekhey/Main aaeena jahaan numa hoon (Meer Kallu Arsh), Main hi momin, main hi kaafir, main hi kaaba, main hi dair/Khud ko main sajde karoonga, dil main tum ho dil mein tum (Ahmad Hussain Mayil), Mujh se chunaan chuneen na karo main nashey main hoon/Main jo kahoon naheen, na karo main nashey main hoon (Abdul Hameed Adam).

Taghazzul (Inner rhythm and intent incarnate)

Taghazzul is the sum total of a condition that a genuinely meritorious sher, characterised by internal rhythm and balance of experience, represents. It is typical of ghazal as it relates with emotions and sentiments represented with deep rhythmic appeal and harmony. As such, taghazzul relates mostly with the poetry of love. As such, internal rhythm, soft tone and mystifying experience characterise taghazzul.

In a typical sher of taghazzul, there has to be a close correspondence between the interior weather of the sher and its in-built lyricism which together make a deep impact on the reader. As taghazzul is marked by lyricism and musicality, it creates a moment of ecstasy in the reader. A sher of taghazzul is marked by soft tone, precision and suggestiveness in representing the conditions of love and longing. 

Reference: Vali mujh dil mein aataa hai khayaal-e yaar-e beparwaa/Ke jiun ankhiyon maneen aataa hai khwaab aahista aahista (Vali Deccani), Tareeq-e ishq main hai rehnuma dil/Payambar dil hai, qibla dil, Khuda dil (Meer Taqi Meer), Aashiqi sabr talab aur tamanna betaab/Dil ka kya rung karoon khoon-e jigar hotey tak (Ghalib), Jis samt bhi dekhoon nazar aata hai keum ho/ Ai jaan-jahaan ye koi tum sa hai ke tum ho (Ahmad Faraz), Dil bas ke hai deewaana us husn-e gulaabi ka/Rangeen hai usi roo se shaayad gham-e furqat bhi (Hasrat Mohani), Gulon mein rang bharey baad-e naubahaar chaley/Chaley bhi aao ke gulshan kakarobaar chaley (Faiz Ahmad Faiz), Majrooh likh rahey hain wo ahl-e wafaa ke naam/Hum bhi khadey hue hain gunahgaar ki tarah (Majrooh Sultanpuri), Lamhaat-e musarrat hain tasawwur se gurezaan/Yaad aai hain jab bhi ghum-o aalaam his aaye (Ada Jafri).

Tajseem (Personification)

Tajseem, or personification, is a figure of speech in which human qualities are transferred to non-human objects. This is an example of the poet’s imaginative vitality by which he can personify an object and make it plausible for the reader to accept. Tajseem imparts a deep meaning to the sher and helps represent a scene, or a situation, with vividness. By turning the inanimate objects into living objects and by enlivening the same, the poet can attribute layers of meaning to his sher.

Experience: Ik parinda suna rahaa tha ghazal/Chaar chhe ped mil ke suntey the (Mohammad Alvi), Fiza ka pahla phool khilaaney waali sub’h/Hawaa ke sur mein geet milaane waalaa mein (Rajender Manchanda Bani), Sitaare siskiyaan bharte the, ose roti thi/fasna-i jigar-e lakht lakht aisa tha (Shakeb Jalali), Jugnuon ke se lamhe udtey the/Haan meri dastas mein thi kal raat (Zehra Nigah), Saanp jab ose ka badan chaatey/Ret ko ret ki jalam chaate (Bashir Badr), Main uski khaamoshi ko bhi sun sakta hoon/Khwabob khwabon mein bhi khwabein bun sakta hoon (Anisur Rahman).

Takhaiyyul (Imagination)

Takhayyul, or imagination, is what distinguishes a poet, or any creative writer from others. It is the power to create rather than to describe the obvious. Takhayyul is the poet’s synthetic power to bring the opposites against each other and to create a plausible cosmos out of it. It is manifested in the poet’s imaginative faculty to conceive an image afresh and to turn it into a strong simile, a powerful metaphor, a vibrant symbol, and finally into an all-inclusive myth.

Takhayyul stimulates the readers’ imagination and helps them to recognise the reality. It is the opposite of fancy which deals with “fixities” and “definites” and it marks the way how the non-literary ones look at the objects of the world.  Imagination has been a subject of elaborate discourse in many disciplines, especially literary theory, philosophy and psychology.

References: Khabar-e tahayyur-e ishq sun, na junoon raha, na pari rahi/Na to tuu raha na to main raha, jo rahi so bekhabari rahi (Siraj Aurangabadi), Dekh to dil ke jaan se uthhta hai/Ye dhuan sa kahaan se uthhta hai (Mer Taqi Meer), Baazecha-i atfaal hai duniya merey aage/Hota hai shab-o roze tamaasha merey aage (Asadullah Khan Ghalib), Har waqt fikr-e marg-e ghareebaana chaahiye/Sehat ka ek pehlu mareezaana chaahiye (Majeed Amjad), Jis samt bhi dekhoon nazar aataa hai ke tum ho/Ai jaan-e jahaan, ye koi tum sa hai, ke tum ho (ahmad Faraz), Safeena rakhta hoon, darkaar ek samundar hai/Hawaaein kehti hain us paar ik samundar hai (SarwatHussain).

Takhallus (Acronym/pen name)

Takhallus is an acronym, or a pen name that a poet adds to his given name. This has been an old tradition n Urdu poetry where the poets have adopted takhallus.  While he seems to address his own self but he actually addresses his readers by addressing himself. Almost all of the pre-modern poets used takhallus invariably in the last sher of the ghazal known as maqta.

Reference: Gham-e hasti ka Asad kis se ho juz marg ilaay/Shams har rung mein jalti hai sahar hone tak (Asadullah Khan Ghalib), Munir is mulk per aaseb ka saaya hai ya kya hai/Ke harkat tez tar hai aur safar aahista aahista (Munir Niyazi), Zafar main shahr mein aa to gayaa hoon/Meri khaslat bayaabaani rahegi (Zafar Iqbal), Kis qadar ik doosre se lagte hai manoos Zeb, Naariyal ke ped, ye saahil ke pathhar aur ain (Zeb Ghauri).

Talaazama-i khayaal (Association of ideas)

Talaazma-i khayaal, association of ideas, refers to the meeting together of minds, mental states, or ideas by which one can understand one’s own condition of being with reference to the other. This works broadly on the principle of cause and effect which is based on three factors: resemblance, contiguity and causality. This implies that simple ideas combine together to form a larger body of idea. This larger body of idea may ultimately distinguish itself as the central idea.

Also known as mental associations, talaazma-i khayaal is also known for being layered and complex as it concerns essential human consciousness. Poets and writers play with single and intersecting ideas to express themselves at both the single and multiple levels of appeal even as they also create metaphors and symbols while bringing two or more ideas together.

Reference: Zer-e zameen aataa hai jo gul so zar ba-kaf/Qaroon ney raaste mein lutaayaa khazaana kya (Haider Ali Atash), Koyi weeraani si weeraani hai/Dasht ko dekh ke ghar yaad aayaa (Asadullah Khan Ghalib),Aaya wo teergi ka samundar meri taraf/Jugnu uda fiza mein to qandeel ho gaya (Saeed Ramish), Makeen the ya koyi khoyee hui jannat ki tasweerein/Makaan is shahr ke bhule hue sapne lagey ham ko (Ahmad Mushtaq), Main ke bhphrey hue toofaan mein hoon laehron lehron/Tuu ke aasooda-i sahil hai mera saath na chhod (Mazhar Imam), Galey mila na  kabhi chaand bakht aisaa tha/Haraa bharaa badan apnaa darakht jaisa tha (Shakeb Jalali).

Talmeeh (Allusion)

Talmeeh, or allusion, is an indirect reference to a real or mythical person, place, situation, event etc. It is used as a creative tool to broaden the horizon of meaning in a text.  Talmeehs are usually drawn from religious, mythological, historical, cultural, and such other sources. These are used by writers and producers of verbal, non-verbal, performance, and other texts to add value to their work and to acquire larger appeal among readers. Allusions help the readers relate with the texts and develop a perspective to appreciate their worth in a broader perspective.

Reference: Husn ke Khizr ne kiya labrez/Aab-e-haiwaan se jaam tujh lab ka (Vali Deccani), Khaak-e-aaeena se hai naam-e-Sikandar raushan/Raushni dekhta gar dil ki safaayi karta (Sheikh Ibrahim Zauq), Itna maqdoor mujhe dijo to ai Mehdi-i-deen/Maare kodon ke uda doon khar-e-Dajjal ki khaal (Ghulam Mushafi Hamadani), Kahaan se laaun sabr-e-Hazrat-e-Ayyub ai saqi/Khum aaiga, suraahi aaigi tab jaam aaiga (Shad Azimabadi), Aamad-o-raft mein tha har qadam barq-e-burraq/Murghzaar-e-chaman-e-aalam-e-baala baadal (Mohsin Kakorvi).

Tamseel (Allegory)

Tamseel, or allegory, is a strategy of narration, or representation, which works through creating suggestive resemblances in a work of art. By usinging a tamseel, an author or a poet chooses to draw upon a different subject in order to suggest the main subject. The intention is to let the reader recognise the real in terms of the imaginary. It works through rich suggestions and helps the reader exercise his imagination to unveil a type through a prototype. It is an act of creating emblems, or parabola through figuration and typification.

There are two broad types of tamseel that are historical and political. Broadly, tamseel also works as fable and parable and works through personification, or by creating metaphor, and symbol in a work of art but not exactly in definitional terms.

Reference: Har ik dil mein usi ki aarzuu hai/Badi boodhi hai phir bhi khubruu ha/Padi rehti hai ghar mein sar jhukaaye/Ye neki to bechari faaltuu hai/Hamein kya ghaas dalegi bhala wo/Khushi oonche gharaane ki bahuu hai/Kisi bhi hont per jaa baithhti hai/Hansi such poochhiye to faaltuu hai/Kahaan milti hai Alvi such bataanaa/Musarrat ki hamein bhi justujuu hai (Mohammad Alvi).
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Tanawwo (Variety/Range)

Tanawwo refers to the author’s, or poet’s range of imagination which brings a variety of thoughts, ideas and conditions together in a text. Such a text is, thus, characterised by plenty of ideas and styles which bear witness to the author’s vitality of imagination. A literary text bearing the feature of tanawwo is rich in range of refrences and it is complex rather than disappointedy flat with respect to thematic variety and stylistical merit.

Reference: Ai junoon dasht mein deewar kahaan se lauun/Main tamaasha sahi bazaar kahaan se laauun (Shaaz Tamkanat), Hazaar aks hain lamhon ke aaeeney mein magar/Mujhe to bas wahi chehra dikhaai deta hai (Makhmoor Saeedi), Malboos khushnumaa hain magar jism khokhley/Chhilke sajey hue hai phalon ki dukaan per (Shakeb Jalali)

Taqeed (To complicate)

Taqeed is a way of writing verse where the words, or positions of words, are so altered and complicated that they appear unnatural in the text and the communication of meaning becomes difficult. However, it may become a merit only when the words are implicated so deftly that they add a new dimension of meaning to the sher.

Reference: Garchey taaqeed buri hai magar accchi hai kaheen/Ho jo bandish mein munaasib to koyi aib naheen (Dagh Dehlvi), Leta na agar dil tumhein deta koi dum chayn/Karta jo na marta koyi din aah-o-fughaan aur (Asadullah Khan Ghalib). Tadapna bhi dekha na bismil ka apney/Main kushta hoon andaaz-e qaatil ka apney (Meer Taqi Meer), Hoga izzat mein khesaara to pata chal jaaiga/Ghar ke tum phaldaar pedon ki hifaazat mat karo (Manzar Wahidi).

Tarah (Base)

Tarah is a base line offered to poets to develop their ghazals on. In this case, the original line offered to the poet is known as tarah, or the base line. The ghazal written on a tarah is required to follow the same metrical pattern and the same qaafia and radeef. Before asking the poets to ry their hands on a tarah, the letters Q and R are indicated on the line to mark that one of them is a Qafia and the the Radeef which the poets must follow.

Reference: Ik muamma hai samajhne ka na samjhaney ka/Zindagi kaahe ko hai khwab hai deewaane ka (Fani Badayuni),Hijr mein ab ke ajab rung hua hai apna/Kaifiyat shama ki hai haal hai parwaaney ka (Sohail Saqib), Aaj main kaun sa weeraana liye phirta hoon/Kyun ta’aqub main hai saaya kist deewaaney ka (Rizwan Mumtaz), saarey rishte yahaan jalney ke liye hotey hain/Kaam kartey hain yehi shama ka, parwaane ka (Zaheer Rehmati).

Tarkeeb (Purposeful twining of words)

Any combination of words to create a meaning is called a tarkeeb. In the literary context, tarkeeb is a way of using words with their own meaning in order to create a compound phrase with the intention of creating a precise meaning. It is a way of twining words and putting them in unexpected combinations. It is a creative and an innovative way to conceive and reflect layers of meaning in a text.

Reference: Tuk sun ke sau baras ki naamuus-e khamoshi ko/Do chaar dil ki baatein ab munh pe aaiyaan hain (Meer Taqi Meer), Main ek lehr hoon apne makan mein aur phir/Hujoom-e kuucha-o deewaar ik samundar ai (Sarwat Hussain), Bahut se chaand bahut se chiraagh kam nikle/Banaaney baittha jo main kal raat goshwaara-i shab (Farhat ehsas), Jidhar nigaah karuun ik naya samundar hai/Ye khwab hai ke koyi khwab ka samundar hai (Aftab Hussain).

Tasarruf (Appropriation)

Tasarruf relates with the art of appropriation. It is a creative act by which a poet appropriates some other poet’s words, or turns of phrases to write his own verse. By doing this, the poet who draws upon another poet adds a new context, or meaning to his sher. Tasarruf is an example of the play of poet’s imagination.

Reference: Meer ko kyun na mughtanim jaanein/Agley logon mein ik rahaa hai ye (Meer), Kyun na Meeran ko mughtanim jaanoon/Dilli waalon meinik bacha hai ye (Ghalib), Tha Mushafi ba-maail-e girya ke pas-e marg/Thi us ne dhari chasm pe taboot mein ungli (Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi), Tha Mushafi kaanaa jo chhupaaney ko pas-e marg/Thee us ne dhari chashm pe taboot mein ungli (InshaAllah Khan Insha), Go haath mein jumbish naheen aankhon mein to dum hai/Rahne do abhi saaghar-o meena merey aagey (Ghalib), Dil se jo baat nikalti hai asar rakhti asar rakhti hai/Per naheen taaqat-e parwaaz magar rakhti hai (Mohammad Iqbal), Such to keh doon magar is daur ke insaanon ko/Baat jo dil se nikalti hai buri lagti hai. (Saleem Ahmed), Kaifiyat-e mai saaghar-e mai per rahi haawi/Rakkhey hi rahey saaghar-o meena mere aagey (Khayal Rampuri).

Tashbeeh (Simile)

Tashbeeh, or simile, is a figure of speech which establishes similatity between two objects, images, situation etc. It is used in day-to-day speech by common folk in a variety of contexts but it acquires a larger meaning in the hands of poets and other creative writers.

Used imaginatively by the poet, it sparks the imagination of the reader and offers a way to enter into the text with deeper interest. Tashbeeh adds profundity to the text and when it acquires greater depths, it acquires the status of conceit.

Reference: Naazuki us ke lab ki kya kahiye/Pankhuri ik gulaab ki see hai (Meer), Tashbeeh tere chehrey ko kya doon gul-e tar se/Hota hai magar itna shagufta naheen hota (Akbar Allahabadi), Hum hain mataa-i koocha-o bazaar ki tarah/Uthhti hai har nigaah khareedaar ki tarah (Majrooh Sultanpuri), Dil hai pyasa Hussain ki maanind/Ye badan Karbala ka maidaan hai (Mohammad Alvi), Sholon ki tarah hain kabhi shabnam ki tarah/Hain zakhmon ki soorat, kabhi marham ki tarah/Koyi bhi naheen jis pe bharosa kije/Yaan log badal jaate hain mausam ki tarah (Obaidur Rahman).

Tawaarud (Unintentional occurrence)

Tawaarud refers to the same kind of expression in two poets, that is, the poet who wrote later had no idea that some other poet had already written such a verse earlier. It is different from sarqa where there is a conscious attempt at copying the verse of a poet. As such, tawaarud is not a vice but an example of how one poet might think and write like another poet without ever knowing him or his work. It implies that tawaarud happens naturally while sarqa is resorted to deliberately. Sometimes, tawaarud happens without any difference of lines in two poets but at others there are individual phrases and ways of apprehension that fall in the same maaner in two poets.

Reference: deewaar kya giri mere kacche makaan ki/Logon ne merey sehn mein raste banaa liye (Tasawwur Hussain Zadi and SyedSibte Ali Saba), Aandhiyon ne kar diya har ik shajar be-barg-baar/warna jab patte khadakte, dil larazta aur bhi (Nisar Nasik), Hat kar mahaaz-e jung se wo dar lagaa usey/Patta kaheen jo khdka to lashkar lagaa use (Azhar Inayati), Phaandkar deewaar kamre ki gaye/Apne ghar mein rah ke bhi hum chor the (Aleem Durrani), Aawaargi ne is qadar us ko gira diya/Wo aaj apne ghar ke dareeche se ghar gaya (Shakeel Shayer).

Tazmeen (Insertion)

Tazmeen is an act of using a line or two of some other poet to write one’s own verse. It is done with an intention to extend the sphere of meaning beyond the one represented by the previous poet. The poet who draws upon another poet’s work acknowledges his indebtedness to the poet from whom the line has been drawn. Tazmeen is in no way an act of misappropriation but a way of exercising one’s imagination to develop a new strand of idea other than the one represented by the previous poet.

Reference: Phirte hain khwaar Meer koi poochhta naheen/Is aashiqi mein izzat-e saadaat bhi gayi (Meer Taqi Meer), Matla kahaa nazm watan ka gila naheen/Phirte hain Meer khwar koyi poochhta naheen (Shad Arfi), Hum bhi munh main zaban rakhtey hai/Kash poochho ke mudd’aa kya hai (Ghalib), Hum bhi munh mein zabaan rakhte hain/Itna oonchaa na boliye sahib (Mohammad Ali Mauj).

Waaqiyat (Portraying the actual)

Waaqiyat relates with practical experience of an event and it refers to the portrayal of the actual rather than the imaginary. It is, thus, the real representation of the experience or event without any intermixing of fantasy or imagination. Since poetry is an imaginative representation of reality, the real experiences remain real in a text and may be recognised as such.

Reference: Jo mujh pe guzro mut us se kaho hua so hua/Balaa kashaan-e mohabbat pe jo hua so hua (Mirza Mohammad Rafi Sauda), Le gaya cheenke kaun aaj mera sabr-o qaraar/Beqaraari tujhe ai dil kabhi aisi to na thi (Bahadur Shah Zafar), Wo shola saaz bhi usi basti ke log the/Un ki gali mein raqs-e hawaa kyun naheenhua (Irfan Siddiqui).

Wazn (Defined weightage)

Wazn refers to a defined weightage that a syllable carries in a line of a ghazal, or a regulated poem. In other words, wazn is a part of a meter and a measure of sound determined by the volume of syllable. If this principle is not followed, the sher falls out of the given metrical pattern and is called namauzoon, or metrically incorrect.  Wazn creates a certain musicality which is brought about by the weightage the syllable carries.

Reference: Dil gayaa tum ne liya hum kya karein/Jaane waali cheez thi ghum kya karein (Dagh Dehlvi), Ye bazm-e mai hai yaan kotah dasti mein hai mehruumi/Jo badh ke khud utthaa le haath mein meena usi ka hai (Shad Azimabadi), Kaargaah-e duniya mein neesti bhi hasti hai/Ik taraf ujadti hai ek samt basti hai (Yaas Yagana Changezi), Barbaad-e mohabbat pe ataab aur ziyaada/Haan meri mohabbat ka jawaab aur ziyadah (Asrarul Haq Majaz).